National Task Force on Quality of Services in the Interpreting for Postsecondary Deaf Students

INTERPRETING FOR
POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTS

AUTHORS:
Gary Sanderson
California State University, Northridge

Linda Siple
National Technical Institute for the Deaf

Bea Lyons
Chattanooga State Technical Community College

EDITOR AND TASK FORCE CHAIR:
Ross Stuckless

NETAC COPY EDITORS:
Kathleen Smith
Ruth Verlinde
Rochester Institute of Technology
National Technical Institute for the Deaf
Rochester, New York

1999

Suggested citation:
Sanderson, G., Siple, L., and Lyons, B.
Interpreting for Postsecondary Deaf Students: A report of the National Task Force on Quality of Services in the
Postsecondary Education of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students.
Rochester, N.Y.: Northeast Technical Assistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology.

Distributed by the Northeast Technical Assistance Center (NETAC) in collaboration with the Postsecondary Education Programs Network (PEPNet) and co-sponsored by the
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS)
of the U.S. Department of Education (84.078A);
the Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD);
and the Conference of Educational Administrators of Schools and Programs for the Deaf (CEASD).

 

Rochester Institute of Technology

National Technical Institute for the Deaf
Northeast Technical Assistance Center
52 Lomb Memorial Drive
Rochester, NY 14623-5604
716-475-6433 (V/TTY)
716-475-7660 (Fax)

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INTERPRETING FOR POSTSECONDARY DEAF STUDENTS
Gary Sanderson, Linda Siple, and Bea Lyons 1

This report consists of four parts, all of which pertain to interpreting for deaf students in the post-secondary educational environment.

Part I. Introduction sketches interpreting services for students who are deaf 2 in postsecondary educational settings. The origins and importance of interpreting services are discussed, followed by reference to several "types" of interpreting that are used to accommodate various communication needs across a spectrum of students, their peers, and faculty/staff.

Part II. Administering interpreting services is written primarily for college and university personnel who are responsible for coordinating interpreting services. It focuses on practical considerations in hiring an interpreter and using the interpreter effectively, addressing questions such as:

• What do you look for in an interpreter?
• How do you recruit and keep an interpreter?
• How do you schedule the interpreter's workload?
• What about interpreting outside the classroom?
• Is there a need for special policies and agreements?

Part III. To the instructor focuses on the effective use of an interpreter in the classroom and addresses the instructor. Many of the suggestions also apply to communicating with deaf students outside the classroom with an interpreter's assistance. Part III deals with questions such as:

• What is the interpreter expected to do in the classroom?
• Do the deaf student's hearing classmates need to know and do anything special?
• What should the instructor be aware of in using an interpreter?
• What should the instructor do differently?

The actual users of interpreting services, particularly teaching faculty, may wish to proceed directly to Part III, returning to Part II for background information if they wish.

Part IV. Postscript pertaining to laws and regulations provides us with a legal perspective on the utilization of interpreting services at the postsecondary level.

PART I. INTRODUCTION

Origins of interpreting in college. Prior to the 1960's, interpreting for deaf students in regular college environments was unknown, explaining in part why so few students who were deaf attended college. Those who qualified could attend Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C., which at the time was the only college in which instructors were proficient in sign language, or they could attend a "regular" college with virtually no prospect of interpreting services. Often the quality of the education received by deaf students who chose the second option was based on their ability to lipread their instructors, the charity of their peers to share notes, and their own level of tenacity.

Until the 1960's, almost all interpreting for deaf people was offered on a voluntary basis by hearing individuals who were related to, or worked with deaf people, such as family members, teachers of deaf students, or members of the clergy. In 1964, with the establishment of the national Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc. (RID), interpreting began to emerge as a profession, with its national certifying body, its Code of Ethics, and its own conventions and periodicals. Augmented by the development of college-based interpreter education programs nationally, interpreting came into its own, and began to provide a professional pool for potential college employment.

Without the availability of well-qualified interpreters, the dramatic increase in numbers of deaf students in regular colleges could not have occurred. Today, more than 20,000 deaf and severely hard of hearing students attend approximately 2,000 two and four-colleges and universities in the United States (Lewis, Farris & Greene, 1994 3 ; Stuckless, Ashmore, Schroedel & Simon, 1997) 4 . Most of the estimated 10,000 deaf students, and many who are severely hard of hearing, use an interpreter in their classes, in selected campus activities, or both.

In 1973, the passage of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act, Section 504, provided additional impetus for the national mainstreaming of deaf students in postsecondary institutions. This law stated that:

No otherwise qualified handicapped individual in the United States - shall, solely by reason of his handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program of activity receiving federal financial assistance.
United States Congress
Section 504,The Rehabilitation Act of 1973
P.L. 93-11

The regulations enacted pursuant to this cite several auxiliary aids that can ensure program accessibility for students who are disabled. For deaf college students, interpreters provide the critical service of making lectures and other orally-delivered materials accessible.

The first report in this series, Introduction (Stuckless, Ashmore, Schroedel & Simon, 1997), includes a closing section titled "ADA and other laws" that discusses the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act, Section 504, and other federal statutes, and makes reference to interpreting. Also, this report closes with an interpretation of law as it relates to interpreting for deaf students at the postsecondary level.

Interpreting as a critical service. The role of the interpreter within the postsecondary setting is to facilitate communication between deaf and hearing individuals throughout the educational environment, both academic and extracurricular. This link plays a major role in the success of most college students who are deaf. Its significance is eloquently expressed in the following letter written by one deaf student upon graduation.

I owe a great deal to my many wonderful professors in Social Work. They have taught me so much and have given me a path to follow the rest of my life. However, I owe my greatest debt to the countless numbers of interpreters who sat in my classroom and allowed me to learn Social Welfare History, Methods of Social Work, and even Statistics. It was through their hands that I learned my most important lessons and it was through their voices that I expressed my ideas and questions. My interpreters have provided the link for me to connect to my education. I do not believe that I could have finished my degree without them. I will forever be indebted.

COMMUNICATION STYLES

Deaf students bring a variety of communication backgrounds and experiences to the college setting. Most have first and second languages, such as English/ ASL, ASL/English, or even first, second, and third languages if a third language is spoken in the home, such as Spanish (Stuckless et al, 1997). A small number of deaf students are also severely visually impaired, often depending on tactile communication.

For face-to-face communication, some deaf students, and most students who are hard of hearing, rely mainly on their spoken English for expressive communication and on speechreading (including sound) for reception (Warick, Clark, Dancer, & Sinclair, 1997). 5 Though fewer in number, some prefer the use of what is called Cued Speech.

TYPES OF INTERPRETERS

Sign language interpreter. The most common type of interpreter is one who works between English and sign language. The interpreter listens to the spoken English message of the instructor and other students, and then signs the message to the deaf student.

There are two common forms of interpreting practiced at the postsecondary level: transliterating and interpreting. Transliterators listen to the spoken message and sign it in a way that closely approximates English. The second type are interpreters who listen to spoken English, then interpret it into American Sign Language (ASL) which has its own grammar and syntax.

However, there is a second dimension to the interpreter's task. Many deaf students do not have speech that is intelligible to most listeners; others may have somewhat intelligible speech but feel uncomfortable using it publicly. Instead, they may choose to express themselves using sign language, while relying on the interpreter to translate the signed message into spoken English. Interpreters are trained to voice interpret for these students, and to do so as accurately as possible.

Oral interpreter. Not all deaf or severely hard of hearing students can and/or choose to use sign language interpreters in the classroom. Some favor speechreading and/or the use of assistive listening devices (Warick et al., 1997). Oral interpreters are used primarily by deaf and severely hard of hearing students who rely mostly on their own speech and speechreading skills, supported in most instances by personal hearing aids, or, increasingly, by cochlear implants. The student reads the lips of the interpreter who has been specially trained to articulate speech silently and clearly.

An oral interpreter is particularly important in situations where the oral student cannot speechread his/her instructor. This can be for a number of reasons, including the instructor's speaking rate or accent, and in situations where there is considerable student participation. Parenthetically, it should be noted that deaf students often cannot follow the rapid changes in speakers that occur in many classes, because they are not aware of where to look for the speaker.

Cued Speech interpreter. The Cued Speech interpreter resembles the oral interpreter except that he/she uses a hand code, or cue, to represent each speech sound. Some deaf students begin to use this system within their families at an early age and become very proficient in its use for communication.

Interpreter for deaf-blind individuals. This interpreter, usually referred to as a deaf-blind interpreter, assists those who have both limited or no hearing and limited or no sight. There are several deaf-blind interpreting techniques, but most frequently the deaf-blind individual receives the message by placing his/her hands on top of the interpreter's hands and following the interpreter's hand movements.

PART II. ADMINISTERING INTERPRETING SERVICES

Obviously the administration of interpreting services for a single deaf student on campus (who may or may not wish the service) will differ from its administration on a campus where a large number of deaf students use the service. In the first situation, the college is likely to need just one full-time equivalent (FTE) interpreter, or perhaps less. At the other end, a college with a large number of deaf students enrolled in regular classes may have 50 interpreters or more.

Let's talk some more about interpreting services in these two colleges. The college with the single deaf student probably contracts with one or two interpreters on a short-term hourly basis. On the other hand, the college with the large number of deaf students probably hires at least a core of its interpreters on a more permanent basis.

The interpreter in the first college probably covers all the classes taken by the deaf student, regardless of their content. In the second college, where possible, interpreters are assigned to classes where they have familiarity with the course content.

The staff person responsible for recruiting and perhaps scheduling the interpreter in the first college is unlikely to be familiar with the process and may look off-campus for help. The second college will have its own resources for both these functions and for supervision of the interpreting staff.

Most of what is said here about administering interpreting services is probably commonplace knowledge and practice within colleges with histories of providing interpreting services to large numbers of deaf students. The focus here is on offering basic suggestions to those colleges with limited experience in providing interpreting services for deaf students.

QUALIFICATIONS OF INTERPRETERS

Hiring a sign language interpreter can be a daunting task for a college administrator who has little or no knowledge about sign language or interpreting. Fortunately, most interpreters have interpreting credentials of some kind. The following information is an overview of the types of education and certification interpreters may have, followed by a discussion of other qualifications that may pertain.

Qualifications to consider include graduation from an interpreter preparation program. Most, if not all, of these programs are associate or baccalaureate degree programs. Sixty-eight (68) of these are listed by state in Appendix A.6

Interpreters may also hold national certification from either the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc. (RID) or the National Association of the Deaf (NAD). Other qualifications include credit for life experience, such as growing up with sign language as a first language, combined with substantial real-world interpreting experience and training. Some states provide quality assurance screening assessments that may be considered when no nationally-certified interpreters are available.

Certification. On the national level, certification of sign language and oral interpreters is conducted by two organizations: RID and NAD. Each certification is an indication that the interpreter has been assessed by professional peers according to a nationally-recognized standard of competence. A valid certificate documents that the interpreter has met or exceeded this national standard, has met all requirements for membership in the organization, and adheres to a Code of Ethics governing ethical and professional behavior.

It is suggested that people responsible for hiring interpreters, and who use certification as the main criterion for determining qualification, hire interpreters who hold a certificate shown in parentheses from the following lists.

RID currently awards the following interpreting certificates:

CI (Certificate of Interpretation)
CT (Certificate of Transliteration)
CDI (Certified Deaf Interpreter)
OIC (Oral Interpreting Certificate)
SC:L (Specialist Certificate: Legal)

The NAD awards the following certificates that indicate proficiency levels:

Proficiency Level 1 (novice)
Proficiency Level 2 (intermediate)
Proficiency Level 3 (generalist)
Proficiency Level 4 (advanced)
Proficiency Level 5 (master)

State screening or quality assurance programs. State quality assurance screening is available in many states across the country. These screening processes vary greatly from one state to another and are not approved by RID or NAD. State assessments serve as a stepping stone for the working interpreter who may not be ready for the RID or NAD certificates, but who wants verification of some beginning level of interpreting skill.

Additionally, many states are beginning to implement legislation requiring some type of licensure of interpreters. It is strongly recommended that a college considering hiring interpreters with this type of licensure contact its State Department of Education or local RID or NAD chapters to inquire about the requirements in its particular state.

Graduates of interpreter preparation programs. Interpreter preparation programs typically involve two or four years of undergraduate study, leading to associate or baccalaureate degrees. The curriculum at the two-year level typically includes ASL studies, knowledge of Deaf culture 7 and deaf communities, skills for interpreting, transliterating, voicing, knowledge of the RID Code of Ethics, and practicum experiences. Typically, the curriculum also includes liberal arts, math, and science components. A list of 68 programs appears in Appendix A.

Baccalaureate degree-level programs are likely to include a larger liberal arts component, intensive ASL study, interpreter skills development, knowledge of the RID Code of Ethics, and considerable and varied practicum experiences over the student's four years of preparation. As of 1998, there were 17 baccalaureate programs in the United States. Graduate study in this field is new, with only one university presently offering a master's degree-level program.

It should be noted here that graduates of interpreter preparation programs have varying degrees of skill level, and the possession of a degree in interpreting does not guarantee the ability to interpret effectively at the postsecondary level. Further assessment of skills remains necessary.

Non-traditional interpreters. Credit for life experience and extensive informal interpreting may constitute another type of qualification. Interpreters who grow up with deaf parents, siblings, or other family members, often develop ASL skills naturally and serve as interpreters beginning at a young age. They develop valuable interpreting skills through an informal process of learning to sign and communicate for one or more family members.

Other interpreters have developed interpreting skills through association with members of the Deaf community and serving as interpreters in church worship services or other informal settings over a period of time. The number of years and the quality of performance of informal interpreting experience should be an integral part of the qualifications considered. Having participated in college-level experiences as a student are an asset and, arguably, a prerequisite for interpreting college-level courses.

These interpreters probably have little "formal" education in interpretation, but may have many hours of workshops and seminars. As with interpreter preparation program graduates, this group does require an additional level of evaluation prior to hiring.

CHOOSING INTERPRETERS

So, how does a college choose an interpreter? On the surface it would seem that the easiest way is to hire only nationally or state-certified interpreters. The problem with this is that most certified interpreters live in metropolitan areas. This problem is compounded by the fact that there are too few certified interpreters to begin with.

Many institutions have implemented their own in-house assessment to assist them in hiring interpreters, particularly when there is an interpreter shortage. This can consist of either a "live interpreting" demonstration or a videotaped assessment. These assessments use special assessment teams, usually composed of working interpreters from the geographic area. Assessments of this kind vary in quality and scope from college to college. Other institutions rely on a local referral agency to help them locate qualified interpreters. Referral agencies for sign language interpreters are generally listed among foreign languages in the telephone yellow pages under "Translators and interpreters."

Colleges with considerable numbers of deaf students are more likely to rely on their interpreter coordinator or their deaf services specialist for advice. In any event, it is paramount that interpreters be screened and hired on the basis of the level and kind of interpreting services needed by deaf students at the postsecondary level.

SCHEDULING INTERPRETERS

Number of interpreting hours. When scheduling interpreters, several considerations should be taken into account. The first of these pertains to the number of hours of interpreting an interpreter can physically handle (See "Working Conditions" for more discussion about potential physical injury, i.e., Repetitive Motion Injuries [RMI]). As a preventative measure, many institutions schedule two interpreters for any class that extends over one hour of continuous lecturing.

Understanding of the subject. Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), institutions are required to provide effective communication for deaf students in the college classroom. Interpreters can be much more effective when they're placed in classes in which they have a basic understanding of the subject. Interpreters will also need access to course materials such as the textbook, handouts, and/or media resources.

When feasible, and prior to scheduling interpreters, it is recommended that the interpreters be asked to provide a list of preferred types of courses for interpreting. In colleges that employ a considerable number of interpreters, a team of interpreters can be developed to concentrate their work in specialized areas, such as in the arts, sciences, or humanities. Colleges that have few deaf students and perhaps only one or two interpreters are unlikely to have this flexibility.

Early collection of students' class schedules. A specific office should be responsible for assuring that deaf students requesting interpreters have an interpreter available to them on the first day of classes. To ensure this, deaf students must provide their class schedules sufficiently in advance to enable the person(s) responsible for scheduling interpreters to make the necessary arrangements, including the time needed to locate off-campus sources of interpreting services if necessary. This is especially important in rural and other non-metropolitan areas since an intensive search may be required to locate a qualified interpreter.

Student access to priority registration. Deaf students should be counseled to understand the importance of planning ahead. Those seeking services should be responsible for planning their next term's courses at least three months prior to the start of that term. To do this, they must have access to priority (early) registration. It is suggested that the office responsible for coordinating deaf students' schedules meet with the department responsible for course registration to stress the fact and the reasons.8

Parenthetically, if a college utilizes interpreters who are also students in that college, priority registration can also be used as a recruiting tool for interpreters. However, it is not advisable for interpreters to take and interpret a course simultaneously.

A college with a small number of deaf students may find it necessary to use interpreters from interpreter referral agencies in the community. To conserve resources, a college can encourage deaf students to take their classes back-to-back whenever possible (especially freshmen and sophomores). This can avoid a "two hour minimum" charge for a single hour of interpreting service as often stipulated by referral agencies. But again, this requires that the student's classroom interpreting needs for each term be known well in advance.

Other scheduling concerns. Lab classes may give the appearance of being too easy for interpreters; outwardly they may not seem to warrant interpreters since students work alone much of the time. However, they do serve a twofold purpose. One, if the deaf student has an interpreter, he/she can participate fully. Two, it can give the interpreter a break during the day, and for this reason can be a very effective tool for the prevention of RMI. Needless to say, two interpreters are not required in this case.

A second general concern is that lecture or seminar classes are often fast-paced and require stamina from the interpreter. Where possible, these fast-paced courses should be preceded or followed by a "lighter duty" class.

Third, relatively few interpreters are specialists in a specific content area. Depending on their familiarity with a course and experience in interpreting for the instructor, they may require "prep" time in order to be able to interpret effectively. Interpreters often have to research a topic to determine the best way to translate its concepts into sign language.

Fourth, while the assignment of interpreters to cover classes takes priority, scheduling will often be necessary to cover interpreting requests for out-of-class course-related activities. Many instructors require students to attend seminars, colloquia, plays, field trips, observations, and so on, as part of their class requirements.

The scheduling office should establish a realistic deadline for the student or faculty member to notify the interpreter coordinator of any interpreting needs outside the classroom. Depending on the size of the interpreting pool, this time might be anywhere from 48 to 72 hours. For recordkeeping purposes, a form should be developed for use in dispatching interpreters. This also provides a record of how the interpreter's time is being used.

As a matter of policy, only the office that coordinates interpreter services should assign interpreters. Also, any work done by the interpreter must be approved in advance. Without these understandings, there may be no way of tracing the charges, and the costs for interpreting services are likely to get out of hand.

EXTRACURRICULAR INTERPRETING

There is general agreement that college students should be encouraged to participate in both academic and extracurricular activities. Yet, while it is clear that interpreting services are invaluable to most deaf students (and their instructors) in their course-work, many institutions are reluctant to provide interpreting services for extracurricular events. The law requires support for interpreting in some instances, but not others.

Course-connected support. Under the law, extra-classroom activities for which interpreting services are mandated hinge on whether these activities are required for course completion. These might include student/faculty meetings, field work, observations, plays, volunteer work, student teaching assignments, and off-campus classes.

Students and interpreters should be asked to inform the office responsible for interpreter assignments as soon as they learn about these course requirements so that staff and funds can be allocated.

Non course-connected support. Every effort should be made to meet with the ADA and 504 Compliance Officer on-campus, if in fact there is one, to establish a dialogue on how extracurricular interpreting needs can be covered. It is clearly the deaf student's responsibility to make known the fact that he/she plans to attend an extracurricular activity if seeking interpreting services.

The major issue is usually not whether interpreting services should be provided for extracurricular activities, but who is responsible for paying for the service. Many situations will require the cooperation of several campus organizations and departments. A campus-wide policy on interpreting services should be developed and disseminated that includes how to request an interpreter for an event, who pays, how to advertise interpreting services, and time frames necessary for advance scheduling.

The following are some of the programs and activities for which policies and procedures for delivery of interpreting services, as well as payment, should be developed, preferably in advance:

The Student Health Center. A close relationship needs to be cultivated between the department responsible for providing support services and the Student Health Center. Scheduling payment of interpreters in a medical setting can be difficult. It is difficult to predict how long a deaf student and his/her interpreter may have to wait for a 1 p.m. appointment if the physician has an emergency and his/her appointments are backed up.

Student Government activities. This includes all chartered clubs and organizations on-campus if they are supported through student fees.

The Counseling Center. If all students are eligible to receive personal counseling, these services are to be free to deaf students like all others.

Fraternities and sororities. These organizations sponsor activities "around the clock." A clear understanding needs to be reached with the local chapter and/or the national office of the fraternity or sorority.

Campus theater productions. Students and community members may attend, in which case interpreting costs may need to be included in the productions' budgets.

Visiting speakers or productions. The planners should be made aware during the negotiations that interpreters may be required.

Commencement. For graduating students, the Commencement budget may absorb the interpreting costs, or the funds may come from the general interpreting fund. There may also be times when deaf parents of hearing students attend college activities such as Commencement. In that event, funding will need to be determined.

Campus-wide events. Many times a college will want to provide interpreting as a goodwill gesture in case a deaf student participates.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Supervisors of interpreters should be familiar with the contents of this section so they can fully understand the complexities of providing interpreting services. It helps if the supervisor is an interpreter him/herself, as is the case in most colleges serving large numbers of deaf students.

Repetitive motion injury (RMI). Because of the high RMI-caused injury rate among sign language interpreters in educational settings (some estimates range as high as 30 percent), care must be taken in the assignment of interpreters to classes. RMI, for the most part, is preventable with reasonable scheduling, team interpreting, and frequent breaks.9 For more information on RMI, its prevention among interpreters, and rehabilitation measures for bringing interpreters "back on line," contact the Department of Interpreting Services at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester, NY, (716) 475-6455 (V/TTY).

Team interpreting. For the purposes of this report, "team interpreting" means two interpreters working and "spelling"/assisting each other at brief intervals for the full time assigned. It does not mean "relief interpreting" where one interpreter interprets while the other leaves the room and returns 20 - 30 minutes later. By teaming as many classes as possible, the danger of RMI can be greatly reduced while providing better interpretation throughout the assignment.

Colleges serving numerous deaf students should include a clear policy statement on team interpreting within their overall policies pertaining to interpreters. It should include the number of consecutive interpreting hours before teaming applies. For example, many interpreters are willing to work three 50-minute hours back-to-back because of the built-in break factor. However, doing two 90-minute classes back-to-back without teaming is too stressful for most. Two intensive back-to-back 90-minute lectures should require a team. Any continuous class of two hours or more should be teamed as a matter of course.

Team interpreting raises many concerns about its necessity among administrators. Initially, it seems prohibitive in its cost. But in the long run, the quality of the service is maintained at a high level, eliminating mental and physical fatigue.10 By teaming, one can avoid the necessity for a single interpreter to interpret for prolonged periods. This should reduce costly worker compensation cases due to RMI.

If team interpreting is not possible due to a lack of personnel, then every care must be taken to ensure that interpreters do not interpret non-stop throughout the day. Their schedules should be such that heavy non-stop lectures should not be given back-to-back; light duty classes should be interspersed throughout the day. Examples of light duty classes might include PE activity classes, labs, shops, certain math classes in which all the informa-tion is put on the board, and art studies classes.

POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

Policies and procedures for interpreters working in colleges vary in accordance with who employs them. If they are considered employees of the college, they can be expected to follow the policies established by the institution. However, if the college uses freelance interpreters, the established policies surrounding employees may not pertain equally to them. This section will examine policies for interpreters who are hired as bona fide employees. Freelance interpreters will be mentioned only briefly.

Policies and procedures relative to interpreting should be established so that the interpreters, the college, and all those who use their services, most particularly deaf students and their instructors, have a clear understanding of who is responsible for what. All such policies and procedures should be reviewed by the Human Resources Department of the college. Many campuses find a handbook for interpreters and deaf students to be a useful tool for disseminating information on policy.

RID has established a Code of Ethics for interpreters that is accepted across the country as the standard for interpreter behavior. Colleges are encouraged to adopt this code as a way of protecting the rights of students who are deaf.

Policies should also cover areas such as:

• Role of the interpreter in class.
• What to do when a deaf student who uses the service does not show up for class, i.e., a "no show" policy.
• Notification that a substitute interpreter will be needed.
• How often and under what conditions interpreters can apply preparation time to their reported working hours.
• Guidelines for team interpreting.
• Conditions and procedures for requesting an interpreter for a non-class event.
• Time reporting. Institutional policies that affect interpreters.
• Wages, raises, and benefits; guaranteed hours.
• Provisions and requirements for professional development.

RECRUITMENT OF INTERPRETERS

Numerous organizations, agencies, and educational institutions can be used to provide leads for the recruitment of interpreters, including educational institutions, deaf services agencies, RID (local, state, and national), Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf, and the national Cued Speech Center. The annual (April) reference issue of the American Annals of the Deaf provides a directory of these and most other organizations and agencies of and for people who are deaf or hard of hearing nationally. This issue of the Annals also includes a listing of certificate and degree-granting interpreter education programs nationally. This is an excellent resource for recruiting interpreters, since interpreter educators can often provide leads on interpreters who are seeking jobs in various areas of the country. Appendix A of the present report contains a listing of these programs as reported in the 1998 Annals (Micheaux, 1998).11

The Annals also lists most of the colleges and universities that have an established program for deaf students. Each of these programs is likely to have a staff person who is knowledgeable about interpret-ing services and the recruitment of interpreters.

Still another resource for recruiting interpreters is the deaf services agencies available in most cities. Also, RID publishes a membership directory which lists its members by state. Two specialized recruit-ment resources for interpreters are the Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and the Cued Speech Center. The A.G. Bell Association maintains a list of certified and qualified oral interpreters by state, and the Cued Speech Center maintains a listing of Cued Speech interpreters throughout the United States. Addresses of these are listed in Appendix B.

ATTRACTING AND RETAINING INTERPRETERS

The market to attract and retain interpreters is highly competitive. A college that wants to compete with the high hourly wages offered through many commu-nity service agencies may have to provide additional inducements for making work in the college environment attractive. Several are discussed below.

The reader is also referred to the section on working conditions. For colleges requiring the services of just one or two freelance interpreters, some of the following suggestions may apply, and some may not.

Professional development. Both the RID and the NAD require their certified interpreters to obtain continuing education units in order to maintain their certification. The college can help upgrade interpreters' skills and enhance their loyalty to their college by encouraging interpreters to participate in these programs. This can include providing time off to attend professional development activities, paying for registration to these activities, maintaining a bulletin board to announce activities, and establishing differential pay scales that encourage certification and professional development.

Incremental pay scales. By using an incremental pay scale for interpreters, the college can add motivation for continuing professional development and/or advanced certification. Its steps can be contingent on factors that include hours interpreted, professional development hours, and/or certification.

Faculty/staff parking. This may sound trivial to those who do not work in an urban area, but not to those who do and for whom parking is a major aggravation. Presumably, interpreters who are employed full-time by the college have the same parking privileges as other faculty/staff members. However, this is not always true of interpreters who spend scattered hours at the college. By providing freelance and part-time interpreters with regular parking privileges, they will feel more a part of the college.

For programs employing larger numbers of interpreters, the following may be attractive and cost-effective.

Mentoring. Mentoring differs from supervising interpreting interns. Mentoring is the pairing of two interpreters to work together toward agreed-upon goals. This provides incentive for more seasoned interpreters to improve their skills while giving novice interpreters goals to strive toward. Also, done in a non-supervisory manner, senior interpreters can observe other interpreters and provide constructive feedback on their interpreting.

Student feedback. Each term, deaf students should be given the opportunity to provide feedback to their interpreters. Most interpreters place major value on feedback from their deaf clients/students. Interpreters, deaf students, and supervisors should collaborate on the creation of an evaluation form.

DEAF STUDENTS' ORIENTATION TO INTERPRETING

About three-quarters of all deaf and severely hard of hearing students entering college today are likely to have received their earlier education in mainstream environments augmented by special services, while about one-quarter will have graduated from schools for the deaf. Seal (1998)12 has stated, "In fact, the current generation of deaf and [severely] hard of hearing students is potentially the first generation of college students who may have experienced all formal education with an educational interpreter (p.172)."

However, this is not to say that all these students have used interpreters in the past or are sophisticated users of interpreting services. Hard of hearing students are least likely to have used sign language, and many of these students will choose not to include interpreters among their services.

The college's orientation of deaf and hard of hearing students should include information about the role and availability of interpreters in the classroom, and how to access this service if needed. This information should be provided both as part of an orientation program and included in a student handbook on available services.

For students seeking the use of interpreters, their orientation to interpreting services should include minimally:

• appropriate procedures for requesting an interpreter
• no-show policies for both students and interpreters
• a clearly-stated process for replacing an interpreter
• a process for satisfactory resolution of conflicts

Requesting an interpreter is the student's responsibility. When asking for an interpreter, the student should bring his/her official registration and schedule of classes to the interpreter coordinator. If changing classes, the student should bring the official drop/add form to the interpreter coordinator for use in making needed changes in interpreters. In the event that the class is canceled, the student should inform the appropriate office immediately.

Interpreters may be available for extracurricular activities. The student is responsible for giving sufficient advance notice of special activities by completing a Request for Interpreter Form for each activity and submitting this form to the interpreter coordinator.

The interpreter no-show policy should be spelled out very clearly for the student in writing. If possible, the no-show policy should be printed in a student handbook of comprehensive services available for deaf and hard of hearing students attending the college. For example, the following provisions could be established.

• If a student is late by more than 15 minutes for a one-hour class, the interpreter will leave the classroom.
• If the student is late by more than 30 minutes for a two or three-hour class, the interpreter will leave the classroom.
• If the student does not notify the appropriate office of his/her planned absences for three continuous days of class, the student will not have an interpreter again for that class. The interpreter will be assigned to another class.
• If the interpreter fails to show up or is late for class, the student should report this promptly to the interpreter coordinator.

Replacing an interpreter. Clearly defined steps for replacing an interpreter should be available for the student to follow. Procedures for replacing an interpreter should include the student talking with the interpreter first in an effort to resolve the problem. If this doesn't result in a solution, the student should then report to the interpreter coordinator for assistance with the problem. In the event that conflicts continue between the student and the classroom interpreter, a meeting with the interpreter coordinator and the program coordinator may be necessary to resolve conflicts.

Student handbook. A student handbook should be available and provided to every deaf and hard of hearing student attending the college. This hand-book should include information about program staff, registration procedures, and office locations. It should also contain information about the use of interpreters, tutors, notetakers, counseling services, telecommunications and signaling systems, assistive listening systems, vocational rehabilitation services, as well as availability and use of captioned films and instructional videotapes. General college policies and procedures, organizations serving deaf and hard of hearing people, and campus student organizations should also be included. In short, the handbook should include everything the student needs to know about the college and its services.

Faculty workshops. Faculty can also benefit from a workshop in which they will have the opportunity to interact with interpreters and deaf students.

The collective experience of deaf students and inter-preters suggests that the most effective presentation format is to have three different panels discuss their views on the effective use of interpreters: deaf students, interpreters, and college instructors who have had previous experiences working with interpreters and deaf students.

PART II. TO THE INSTRUCTOR 13

So there you are. It is the first day of classes. You are standing in front of a class of 40 students (who, according to the department head, were supposed to number 25 at most). To make matters worse, one of them is deaf, and there's an interpreter! If you're like most college teachers, you will probably smile weakly at the two and proceed as if nothing had changed, assuming that the interpreter will take care of the deaf student.

Then, 16 weeks later, you may realize that the deaf student never really participated in class discussion, and the other students never benefited from that student's unique presence in your classroom. Everyone, including the deaf student, will have missed an opportunity. Simply having an interpreter does not automatically mean that the deaf student will become fully integrated into the class.

But, it need not end this way. Several studies indicate that students report an improved educational experience when their instructors understand the role and function of the interpreter and take steps to manage the dynamics of the classroom communication (Mertens, 1990 14 ; Foster & Brown, 1989 15 ; Quinsland & Long, 1989 16 ).

LET'S TALK FIRST ABOUT THE INTERPRETER

The interpreter's role in your classroom. You should understand that the interpreter has a single responsibility in your class, that being to facilitate communication between you and your deaf student(s), and between the deaf student(s) and hearing classmates.

Most interpreters have a college degree in interpreting, or a degree in a related area with additional education in interpreting. The interpreter assigned to your class is unlikely to be an expert in your particular area, but he or she is an expert in communication between deaf and hearing individuals. Among other things, this means that in order for effective communication to occur, he or she must have the trust of you and your students that he or she will do the following:

Interpret accurately. The interpreter is responsible for interpreting all information as accurately as he or she can, without embellishment or deletion.

Remain impartial. The interpreter will avoid the expression of personal opinions.

Interpret all the communication that occurs in the presence of the deaf student. In essence, the interpreter becomes the ears of the deaf student. This means relevant and irrelevant messages, off-color jokes, two students arguing in the hall, the discriminatory comment about the "deaf and dumb kid" in the class - anything that hearing people would be able to hear. Likewise, when the deaf student uses the interpreter to translate/"voice interpret" his or her signs into speech, the interpreter vocalizes every aspect of the deaf student's message, including its emotional tone.

Maintain confidentiality. Maintaining confidentiality is another way of ensuring trust. Interpreters are often involved in many aspects of the student's life, particularly in a college setting. If your college employs only one or a small number of interpreters, chances are that the interpreter knows the deaf student quite well. The same interpreter may interpret for the student at the student health service, in a religious support group, at the financial aid office, or in connection with any of the services on-campus, all in addition to the student's classes. Because interpreters have access to a great deal of private information, confidentiality is strictly maintained.

Avoid counseling or advising deaf students. If a deaf student needs help for a course-related or other personal matter, the interpreter will refer him or her to an appropriate source and may even volunteer to go along to interpret, but will not offer the student direct counseling or advice.

THE FIRST FEW CLASSES

Interpreters have a unique role in the classroom. They are quite visible and will attract considerable attention during the first few days of classes, especially from uninitiated hearing students. Because of this visibility, some instructors and students try to include interpreters in discussions or activities. However, in order to be actively involved with interpreting, interpreters must take a passive role in classroom participation. They will therefore avoid offering opinions, even if asked directly.

Also, the person who provides classroom interpret-ing services is a member of the instructional team. Some instructors inadvertently make comments that suggest they consider him or her to be more like a member of the class. This of course is not so, and comments of this kind should be avoided.

The first day. If the presence of an interpreter is new to most students in your class, it is important to allow them an opportunity to learn how best to use an interpreter. On the first day of class, it is a good idea to ask the interpreter to take 5 or 10 minutes to explain what interpreting is and how best to use this support service. The following points are key.

• Sign language interpreting is very much like spoken foreign language interpreting, except that it involves the use of the language of signs (see exceptions described in "Type of interpreters").
• Everything that is said is interpreted; everything that is signed (again, see "Type of interpreters") is interpreted.
• If you would like to speak to the deaf student, the interpreter will interpret your question or comment. It is easier to interpret if you speak directly to the deaf student: "I'd like to know how you feel about..", not, "Ask him how he feels about.." The first few times will feel awkward because the deaf student will be looking not at you but at the interpreter.
• Multiple conversations cannot be interpreted, so it is important that only one person speak at a time.
• An interpreter can only interpret what can be heard, so please speak clearly.
• The interpreter is not a participating member of the class. If you have a question for the interpreter, feel free to ask during a "non-interpreting" time.
• In classes where sensitive information is being shared, interpreters regard all assignment-related information as confidential.

DEAF STUDENTS' RELIANCE ON VISION

Line of sight, visual field, and lighting. Deaf students frequently sit in the front row in order to see the instructor, the interpreter, and the board. The interpreter generally sits in the front of the classroom facing the deaf student(s). It is important to keep this visual line of communication open by avoiding walking between them.

Sometimes the interpreter may need to reposition. For example, if the class is discussing the circulatory system, which is represented on a model, it will be better if the interpreter is next to the model. If the class is watching an uncaptioned videotape, the interpreter will move next to the television screen. Be sure to pause to allow the interpreter time to take up his or her new position.

Watching an interpreter for any length of time is tiring for the deaf student's eyes. For that reason, interpreters avoid sitting in front of a window or other light source.

In addition, it is important that you inform the interpreter in advance when movies, slides, or other projections requiring low light are shown. The interpreter will then bring a small portable light so that the deaf student can see the interpreter while the room lights are off. When the lights are turned back on, allow the deaf student's eyes time to adjust to the new lighting conditions before resuming the lecture.

Deaf students' participation. Deaf students tend to participate less actively in class than their hearing classmates. One reason for this is the fact that, in order to process information correctly, the interpreter sometimes must lag several seconds behind the speaker. This in turn impacts on the deaf student's ability to participate spontaneously in the class discussion. If the instructor waits until the interpreter catches up and pauses before recognizing a student, this gives the deaf student a better opportunity to participate actively in discussion.

Captioned or interpreted movies and videotapes. Deaf students prefer to have captioned media when available. Your college media center can provide information on the availability of captioned programs. If the program selected is not available in a captioned format, it will need to be interpreted.

Movies and videotapes are often the interpreter's worst nightmare. They are designed to be fast-paced and the information is often very dense. This means that there are many important facts or complex concepts presented with little time to process the material mentally.

You will therefore need to aid the interpreter ahead of time by providing a summary of the program and the points you want the deaf student to know. Ideally, the interpreter should have access to the program in advance of the class viewing.

DEALING WITH THE LENGTH AND PACE OF THE CLASS

Interpreting is very demanding physically. Many interpreters suffer from various conditions categorized as Repetitive Motion Injuries (RMI) (DeCaro, Feuerstein, & Hurwitz (1992).17 18 It is therefore recommended that you:

• Build in breaks when classes exceed 50 minutes.
• Ensure that breaks are at least 10 minutes in length.
• Remember that using the break to talk to the deaf student means that the interpreter is still working.

Team interpreting. Depending on the length and pace of your class, two interpreters may be assigned to your class as a team, switching every 20-30 minutes, if possible, during a pause in your lecture or discussion.

Pace of the class. It is also important that you control the pace of the class. An investigation of the speaking/lecture rate of 10 college instructors reported an average rate of 150 words per minute (wpm), inclusive of brief pauses between utterances, with a range from 112 to 180. However, one instructor whose average speaking rate was 143 wpm, peaked at 260 wpm over a brief 35-word utterance (Stuckless, 1994).19 If you tend to speak rapidly, or have rapid inter-changes between yourself and your students, you may want to consider pausing more frequently. If you do not know whether your pace is too fast, ask your interpreter to let you know if the speed becomes a problem.

Also, brief but frequent pauses in your lecture will be appreciated by the interpreter, and possibly by your students as well. Incidentally, pauses of this kind can also be helpful if a notetaker is assigned to your class.

Reading is generally much faster than extempora-neous speech. That makes student presentations particularly problematic for interpreters. Students are usually nervous and tend to read very fast. If they are reading prepared speeches, require that a copy be provided to the interpreter in advance. It is a good idea to discuss strategies that the hearing student can use in order to make his/her presenta-tion more clear and easier to interpret. For example, one can insert pauses by writing "Breath" or "Pause" at key locations in the paper. Overheads also can make the information more visual for everyone.

COMPLEX CONCEPTS AND OBSCURE TERMS

Many instructors who work regularly with interpreters encourage them to interrupt the class if something becomes too difficult to translate. Interpreters are "professional listeners" having been trained to decipher all levels of communication. If the interpreter is having difficulty, that is a good indication that most students are not understanding the information being presented.

As stated earlier, most interpreters are not content experts. They need access to course materials in order to provide more accurate information. It is helpful for the interpreter to have copies of the textbook, course syllabus, and handouts. You might even consider giving the interpreter a copy of your lecture notes to review before class.20

The interpreter will do a better job of interpreting if, before the class begins, you can briefly give him or her a sense of what you hope to accomplish during the class session. This gives the interpreter an "advance organizer."

Interpreters in educational settings often rely on fingerspelling to communicate ideas. Fingerspelling is a way of representing the alphabet on the hand. Many terms, including people's names and uncommon scientific vocabulary, do not have a sign equivalent and therefore must be fingerspelled. For example, an anthropology class can discuss australopithecus afarensis 21 without ever having to spell it, but an interpreter must fingerspell the entire term and therefore needs to know its correct spelling. Writing new vocabulary of this kind on the board will greatly aid the interpreter.

Another common translation problem for sign language interpreters is the use of idiomatic or conceptual expressions for which there are no equivalents. When the Botany professor begins his/ her lecture on mushrooms with a statement like "You know I'm a real 'fung-gi'", the jest will fall both literally and figuratively on deaf ears. Sound-based humor, such as puns, are extremely difficult to translate meaningfully into sign.

Regardless of how well you prepare to work with an interpreter, there will be times when she or he will interrupt you for a repetition of information or a clarification of something just said. These interruptions don't necessarily mean you are doing something wrong but that the interpreter needs additional help in deciphering your message. Sometimes the interpreter becomes engaged in a particularly difficult translation and may miss subsequent information. Or an environmental noise - a student's cough, for example - may obscure a particularly important word, such as not or don't.

WRITTEN TESTS

The deaf student may ask the interpreter to interpret all or part of a test. For many deaf students, English is not their first language, so written tests present a type of communication barrier. The deaf student may have difficulty not so much with the content being tested as with the wording of the question or instructions. An interpretation involves the translation of the English text into sign, not help in the content or wording of the student's answer.

Consider how a non-native speaker of English might perceive this question: "After reading the five short stories by Moore, what conclusion can you draw about her view of feminism?" The deaf student, like many second-language learners, might read the question as requiring one to draw a picture. The instructor may want the interpreter to read over the exam to identify potentially ambiguous test items. If time does not permit, then encourage the deaf student to ask for interpretation when an item is unclear.

SEMINARS AND OPEN CLASS DISCUSSION

Seminars and classes that encourage free-flowing discussion present a special challenge to interpreters. Such classes (and other student activity meetings) often exclude the deaf student, not by intent, but, because of the quick pace and unstructured interchanges.

To process information correctly, interpreters must lag behind the speaker(s), sometimes by as much as several seconds. Conversationally, this places the deaf student at a great disadvantage. When the deaf student perceives an opportunity to jump into the conversation or discussion, the turn usually has already been taken by someone else.

Classes such as these also encourage multiple conversations, creating an impossible situation for the interpreter. Discussing this issue with the class, with an occasional reminder, is usually enough to heighten sensitivity. Often there is a self-appointed "conversational policeman" who will point out when it appears that the deaf student has a question or comment to make, or remind the class when individuals are speaking over each other. When asking a question in a regular lecture class, wait until after the interpreter has completed signing the question before you call on students for an answer. This pause allows deaf students an opportunity to see the full question and then raise their hands if they wish to participate.

IN CONCLUSION

The presence of a deaf student and the inclusion of an interpreter in your classroom is an opportunity for you to reassess and enhance the communication dynamics of your classes. The best resource for additional information on your use of interpreters is the interpreter in your class, who is also an expert on how to help communication flow better.

For many deaf students, the presence or absence of an interpreter in the classroom can spell the difference between success or failure in college. But without quality instruction, the student has little chance to succeed. Working in tandem, the instructor, together with the interpreter, other needed support service providers, and most especially the deaf student himself or herself, can tilt the scale in the direction of success.

PART IV. POSTSCRIPT PERTAINING TO LAWS AND REGULATIONS 22

The subject of interpreters is one that brings up numerous issues and perspectives which are difficult to articulate because, without a certain level of personal experience, many important elements in using an interpreter effectively can easily go unrecognized.

Under the ADA and Section 504, interpreters are considered an "auxiliary aid or service." Post-secondary educational institutions must "furnish appropriate auxiliary aids and services where necessary to ensure effective communication with individuals with disabilities" 28 C.F.R. § 36.304. See also, 28 C.F.R. § 35.160. The ADA regulations define a "qualified interpreter" as "an interpreter who is able to interpret effectively, accurately, and impartially both receptively and expressively, using any necessary specialized vocabulary" 28 C.F.R. § 35.107, 28 C.F.R. § 36.104.

In essence, from these regulations we learn that the critical criteria which guide us in the use of inter-preters from a legal perspective are "effective communication" and "qualified interpreter." Thus, this commentary will address points made earlier in this report in relation to those two concepts.

This report outlines many areas that service providers and deaf/hard of hearing students need to consider in the provision of interpreter services in postsecondary education. Viewed through the prism of equal access, each of the areas discussed contributes to the achievement of the goal of legal compliance, in this case, "effective" communication. On the other hand, failing to consider these areas will inevitably detract from "effective" communi-cation, thus contributing to legal vulnerability.

For example, the sooner students can be paired with qualified interpreters the better. The timeliness of requests for interpreters is important, administra-tively, educationally and legally. One should be cautious, however, and recognize that while a preference for early notification regarding interpreter requests plays an important part in service provision, the law holds institutions responsible for providing accommodations from the time the request is made, even if it is "late." Generally, an institution will not be found in violation because it was ultimately unsuccessful in locating an interpreter after a late request. Nevertheless, it must make a good faith attempt to comply with the request and may not refuse to honor the request for interpreting services simply because it is difficult to fill or because it may cost more to provide an interpreter at that late date.

Another area to be addressed which impacts upon full participation and the availability of interpreters for extracurricular activities, public events on campus, and soon, is who picks up the tab? The law is fairly clear that the responsibility to provide access lies with the institution, not with the interpreter coordinator or the Disabled Student Services office, for example. The law does not concern itself with whose budget covers interpreters' fees, but provides that in assessing whether a particular service constitutes an "undue burden," that the courts will look to the resources of the institution as a whole. In essence, if an institution has money for football players, it has money for deaf and hard of hearing students. In addition, the law would not support access to traditional lecture courses without providing access to labs also. However, as the law requires that the provision of accommodations be made on a case-by-case basis, it is possible that certain students may not need an interpreter for a lab section, but that others will. The determination must be made on the basis of the student's needs.

Another critical issue is the qualifications of the interpreters an institution uses to provide services. Notice that the ADA does not use the term "certified", but rather uses the term "qualified" which encompasses the uses of specific terminology, an issue that arises often in the postsecondary environment. This is an important distinction. Certification is some evidence of qualification, but there are many interpreting situations for which a certified interpreter may not be qualified. Court interpreters are highly skilled people, but many of them would not feel qualified in a medical or computer setting. Still other interpreters may not be as highly certified, but more than adequate for a particular interpreting assignment. Matching the skill of the interpreter with the needs of the student and the course being taught is very important to the provision of effective communication.

The institution which takes care to mitigate the possibility of repetitive stress injuries (RMI) through creative scheduling helps to ensure that the services it provides will be effective and in compliance for many years to come.

While the issue of parking spaces may seem tangential, an interpreter in the classroom is worth two in the parking lot! An interpreter who is consistently late for interpreting assignments due to parking problems may not be providing the level of service that would be considered to be in compliance, thus putting the institution at risk. The institution would be well advised to alleviate that circumstance, where possible.

Given the above, it is therefore extremely important that an institution develops policies and procedures for dealing with the interpreter needs of the student population and the need to educate faculty and staff about the interpreting process and varying roles. As more deaf and hard of hearing students attend hearing schools, we are seeing the emergence of certain trends and, thus, areas in need of policy development.

Some of these issues seem simple in the abstract, yet become thorny in the specific. For example, besides policies regarding how much advance notice is required and who pays for interpreters, policies about what constitutes interpreting and what constitutes tutoring or "prompting" need to be addressed. Must a deaf student be responsible for reading examination questions in English, or should an interpreter "interpret" the written English into ASL? What happens if what is being tested is a student's ability to define terminology specific to a field of study, but the "school" sign invented for interpreting purposes in the classroom effectively gives the student the answer? Is this interpreting or giving the student the answer?

An institution is responsible for creating access and is legally prohibited from charging students for interpreting services. For whom does the interpreter work? The institution or the deaf student?

These and other questions are arising on campuses across the country and each institution needs to address them in a manner that is consistent with the law and the institution's mission and employment policies.

FOOTNOTES

1 In the order listed above, the authors are associated with California State University, Northridge (California), National Technical Institute for the Deaf (Rochester, New York), and Chattanooga State Technical Community College (Chattanooga, Tennessee). (return to text)
2 Many severely hard of hearing students also seek and benefit from interpreting services. (return to text)
3 Lewis, L., Farris, E., & Greene, B. National Center for Educational Statistics. (1994). Deaf and hard of hearing students in postsecondary education. (NCES 94-394). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. (return to text)
4. Stuckless, R., Ashmore, D., Schroedel, J., & Simon, J. (1997). Introduction. A report of the National Task Force on Quality of Services in the Postsecondary Education of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. Rochester, N.Y.: Northeast Technical Assistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology. (return to text)
5. Warick, R., Clark, C., Dancer, J., & Sinclair, S. (1997). Assistive Listening Devices. A report of the National Task Force on Quality of Services in the Postsecondary Education of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. Rochester, N.Y.: Northeast Technical Assistance Center, Rochester Institute of Technology. (return to text)
6 This list of interpreter training programs is taken from the American Annals of the Deaf, Reference Issue (1998), 143, 172- 176, with the permission of its managing editor. (return to text)
7 The capitalization of "Deaf" generally denotes deaf individuals who consider ASL to be their primary language and who identify with Deaf culture. (return to text)
8 Early registration may also be essential for the provision of other services such as notetaking, tutoring, and the provision of assistive listening devices. (return to text)
9 Sanderson, G. (1987). Overuse Syndrome among sign language interpreters. Journal of Interpretation, 4. 73-78. (return to text)
10 Interpreting requires the performance of thousands of mental calculations per class hour. (return to text)
11 Micheaux, P. (Editor) (1998). American Annals of the Deaf: Reference Issue. 143, 172-176. (return to text)
12 Seal, B.F. (1998). Best practices in educational interpreting. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. (return to text)
13 This section is adapted from an article titled, "Working with the sign language interpreter in your classroom", first published in College Teaching, 1993, 412, 139-142. Its author was Linda Siple, also co-author of this report. We thank the Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation and Heldref Publications, 1319 18th St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036- 1802, for permission to adapt Dr. Siple's article for this report. (return to text)
14 Mertens, D.M. (1990). Teachers working with interpreters: The deaf student's educational experience. American Annals of the Deaf, 136, 48-52. (return to text)
15 Foster, S., & Brown, P. (1989). Factors influencing the academic and social integration of hearing-impaired college students. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 7, 78-96. (return to text)
16 Quinsland, L., & Long, G. Comprehension of information in mainstreamed classes. Paper presented at annual meeting of American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, 1989. (return to text)
17 DeCaro, J., Feuerstein, M., & Hurwitz, A. (1992). Cumulative trauma disorders among educational interpreters: Contributing factors and interventions. American Annals of the Deaf, 137, 288-292. (return to text)
18 See also "Working conditions." (return to text)
19 Stuckless, R. (1994). Developments in real-time speech to text communication for people with impaired hearing. In M. Ross (Ed.), Communication Access for Persons with Impaired Hearing. Baltimore, MD: York Press. (return to text)
20 Similar suggestions are expressed in the companion reports on Notetaking and Tutoring. (return to text)
21 Skeletal remains of an early human discovered in Australia, popularly known as "Lucy." (return to text)
22 Contributed by Jo Anne Simon, consultant/attorney specializing in laws and regulations pertaining to students with disabilities. (return to text)
23 Appreciation is expressed to the managing editor of the American Annals of the Deaf for permission to reproduce this list from its 1998 Reference issue (143, 2, 172-176).

APPENDIX A. LIST OF INTERPRETING EDUCATION PROGRAMS 23

Interpreter Training Program
Phoenix Community College
1202 West Thomas Road
Phoenix, Arizona 85013
Voice: 602 285-7303
TTY: 602 285-7477 or 7476
Fax: 602 285-7309

Interpreter Training Program
Pima Community College
2202 West Anklam Road
Tucson, Arizona 85709-0295
Voice: 520 884-6974
TTY: 520 884-6974
Fax: 520 884-6020

Interpreter Education Program
Department of Rehabilitation
University of Arkansas at Little Rock
2801 South University Avenue
Little Rock, Arkansas 72204
Voice: 501 569-3169
TTY: 501 569-3169
Fax: 501 569-8129

Deaf Studies Department
California State University, Northridge
18111 Nordhoff Street
Northridge, California 91330-8265
Voice: 818 677-5116
TTY: 818 677-4973
Fax: 818 677-5717

Sign Language/Interpreter Training Program
El Camino College
16007 Crenshaw Boulevard
Torrance, California 90506
Voice: 310 660-3296
TTY: 310 660-3445
Fax: 310 660-3932

Sign Language Interpreting
Department of American Sign Language
San Diego Mesa College
7250 Mesa College Drive
San Diego, California 92111
Voice: 619 627-2789 (V/T)
TTY: 619 627-2923
Fax: 619 279-5668

Interpreting for Deaf People
Golden West College
15744 Golden West Street
Huntington Beach, California 92647
Voice: 714 895-8907
TTY: 714 895-8350

Interpreter Preparation Program
Deaf Center
Ohlone College
43600 Mission Boulevard
Fremont, California 94539
Voice: 510 659-6269
TTY: 510 659-6269
Fax: 510 659-6032

Sign Language Studies
Humanities Divivision
American River College
4700 College Oak Drive
Sacramento, California 95841
Voice: 916 484-8653
TTY: 916 484-8270

Interpreter Preparation Program
Front Range Community College
3645 West 112th Avenue
Westminster, Colorado 80030
Voice: 303 404-5366
TTY: 303 469-0459
Fax: 303 466-1623

Career Education for the Deaf
NW Connecticut Community College
Park Place East
Winsted, Connecticut 06098
Voice: 860 738-6382
TTY: 860 738-6382

Department of American Sign Language,
Linguistics & Interpretation
Gallaudet University
800 Florida Avenue NE
Washington, DC 20002-3695
Voice: 202 651-5450
TTY: 202 651-5200
Fax: 202 651-5741 23

Interpreter Education Program
NE Florida Educational Consortium
c/o Florida School for the Deaf & Blind
207 North San Marco Avenue
St. Augustine, Florida 32084
Voice: 904 797-4795
TTY: 904 797-4795

Interpreter Training Program
Georgia Perimeter College
555 North Indian Creek Drive
Clarkston, Georgia 30021
Voice: 404 299-4322
TTY: 404 299-4322
Fax: 404 299-4364

American Sign Language/Interpreter
Education Program
Office of Continuing Education Training
Kapiolani Community College
4303 Diamond Head Road
Honolulu, Hawaii 96816
Voice: 808 734-9154
TTY: 808 734-9154
Fax: 808 734-9893

Sign Language Studies Program
College of Southern Idaho
Post Office Box 1238
Twin Falls, Idaho 83303-1238
Voice: 208 733-9554 (x2181)
TTY: 208 736-4743

Sign Language Interpreting Program
Academic Enrichment & Language Studies
William Rainey Harper College
1200 West Algonquin
Palatine, Illinois 60067
Voice: 847 925-6415
TTY: 847 925-6415
Fax: 847 925-6048

Interpreter Training Program
Waubonsee Community College
5 East Galena Boulevard
Aurora, Illinois 60506
Voice: 708 466-4811 (x225)

Interpreter Training Department
Columbia College
600 South Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois 60605
Voice: 312 663-1600 (x7218)
TTY: 312 360-9133
Fax: 312 663-0046

Interpreter Training Program
Iowa Western Community College
2700 College Road, Box 4-C
Council Bluffs, Iowa 51502
Voice: 712 325-3203
TTY: 712 325-3495
Toll Free: 800 432-5852
Fax: 712 329-4748

Interpreter Training Program
Johnson County Community College
12345 College Boulevard
Overland Park, Kansas 66210-1299
Voice: 913 469-8500 (x3903)
TTY: 913 469-4478
Fax: 913 469-4409

Interpreter Training Program
Department of Special Education
Eastern Kentucky University
Wallace Building, Room 245
Richmond, Kentucky 40475-0959
Voice: 606 622-4442
TTY: 606 622-4442
Fax: 606 622-4398

Interpreter Training Program
American Sign Language Studies
Delgado Community College
615 City Park Avenue
New Orleans, Louisiana 70119
Voice: 504 483-4553
TTY: 504 483-4553
Fax: 504 483-1953

Interpreter Preparation Program
Catonsville Community College
800 South Rolling Road
Baltimore, Maryland 21228
Voice: 410 455-4474 or 4274
TTY: 410 455-4474 or 4274 or 4398
Fax: 410 455-5134

American Sign Language Program
405 Meserve Hall
Northeastern University
360 Huntington Avenue
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
Voice: 617 373-3064
TTY: 617 373-3067
Fax: 617 373-3065

Sign Language/Interpreter Training Program
Lansing Community College
Post Office Box 40010
Lansing, Michigan 48901-7210
Voice: 517 483-1410
TTY: 517 483-1310

Interpreter Training Program
Mott Community College
1401 East Court Street
Flint, Michigan 48503-2383
Voice: 810 762-0470 (V/T)
TTY: 810 762-0272
Fax: 810 232-9478

Sign Language Studies/Interpreting
Madonna University
36600 Schoolcraft Road
Livonia, Michigan 48150-1173
Voice: 734 432-5616
TTY: 734 591-9266
Toll Free: 800 852-4951
Fax: 734 432-5393

Interpreter/Transliterator Training Program
St. Paul Technical College
235 Marshall Avenue
St. Paul, Minnesota 55102
Voice: 612 221-1343
TTY: 612 221-1343
Fax: 612 221-1416

Health Care Interpreter Program
College of St. Catherine, Minneapolis
601 25th Avenue South
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55454
Voice: 612 690-8112
TTY: 612 690-7862
Fax: 612 690-7849

Deaf Communication Studies/Interpreter Training
St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
3400 Pershall Road
St. Louis, Missouri 63135
Voice: 314 595-2025
TTY: 314 595-2120
Fax: 314 595-4544

Interpreting Program
William Woods University
200 West 12th Street
Fulton, Missouri 65251-1098
Voice: 314 592-1123
TTY: 314 592-1123
Toll Free: 800 995-3199
Fax: 314 592-1164

Sign Language Interpretation
University of New Hampshire, Manchester
University Center
220 Hackett Hill Road
Manchester, New Hampshire 03102
Voice: 603 629-4143
TTY: 603 622-4511

American Sign Language &
Deaf Studies and Interpreters Program
Union County College
232 East 2nd Street
Plainfield, New Jersey 07060
Voice: 908 709-3578
TTY: 908 412-0294
Fax: 908 754-2798

Department of American Sign Language
& Interpreting Education
National Technical Institute for the Deaf
Rochester Institute of Technology
52 Lomb Memorial Drive
Rochester, New York 14623-5604
Voice: 716 475-6497
TTY: 716 475-6497
Fax: 716 475-6500

American Sign Language/English Interpreter
Education Program
Division of Adult & Continuing Education
LaGuardia Community College
31-10 Thomson Avenue - Room C204
Long Island City, New York 11101
Voice: 718 482-5313/5324
TTY: 718 482-5313/5324
Fax: 718 482-5119/5136

Interpreter for the Deaf and
American Sign Language Studies
Suffolk Community College
533 College Road, R-125
Selden, New York 11784
Voice: 516 451-4265
TTY: 516 451-4651
Fax: 516 451-4671

Deaf Adult Services, Inc.
Community Based Education
491 Delaware Avenue
Buffalo, New York 14202
Voice: 716-885-3323
TTY: 716-885-4955
Fax: 716-885-3384

Educational Interpreting
Education of Deaf Children
300 Ferguson Building
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Greensboro, North Carolina 27402-6170
Voice: 910 334-5843
TTY: 910 334-5843
Fax: 910 334-3618

American Sign Language Program
Department of Foreign Languages
Gardner-Webb University
Box 7304
Boiling Springs, North Carolina 28017
Voice: 704 434-4418
TTY: 704 434-4418
Toll Free: 800 253-6472 (Admissions)
Fax: 704 434-4329

Interpreter Education Program
Central Piedmont Community College
Post Office Box 35009
Charlotte, North Carolina 28235
Voice: 704 330-6829
TTY: 704 330-6852
Fax: 704 330-6560

Interpreting & Transliterating Technology
Columbus State Community College
550 East Spring Street, Box 1609
Columbus, Ohio 43216-1609
Voice: 614 227-5164
TTY: 614 469-0333
Toll Free: 800 621-6407

Manual Communication Program
Sinclair Community College
444 West 3rd Street
Dayton, Ohio 45402-1460
Voice: 513 226-2722
TTY: 513 226-2722

Interpreter Preparatory Program
Tulsa Junior College
3727 East Apache
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74115-3151
Voice: 918 595-7444
TTY: 918 595-7444
Fax: 918 595-7598

Interpreter Training Program
Oklahoma State University
900 North Portland
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73107
Voice: 405 945-3288
TTY: 405 945-3300
Fax: 405 945-9131

Human Resources Department
East Central University
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Voice: 405 332-8000
TTY: 405 332-3497

Sign Language Studies and Interpretation
Portland Community College
PCC, SY CT 219
PO Box 19000
Portland, Oregon 97280-0990
Voice: 503 977-4672
TTY: 503 977-4951
Fax: 503 977-4874

American Sign Language/English Interpretation
Western Oregon University
Monmouth Avenue
Monmouth, Oregon 97361
Voice: 503 838-8444
TTY: 503 838-8444
Fax: 503 838-8228

Interpreter Training Program
Community College of Allegheny County
North Campus
8701 Perry Highway
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15237
Voice: 412 369-4172
TTY: 412 369-4108 (V/T)
Fax: 412 369-3624

Interpreter Training Program
Mount Aloysius College
7373 Admiral Peary Highway
Cresson, Pennsylvania 16630
Voice: 814 886-6310
TTY: 814 886-5533
Fax: 814 866-2978

Interpreter Preparatory Program
226 Navy Hall
Bloomsburg University
400 East Second Street
Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania 17815
Voice: 717 389-4076
TTY: 717 389-4076/4080
Fax: 717 389-3980

Interpreter Training Curriculum
Department of Behavioral Sciences
Community College of Philadelphia
1700 Spring Garden Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19130
Voice: 215 751-8291/8443
TTY: 215 751-8292

University of Tennessee
Rehabilitation, Deafness & Human Services
117 Claxton Addition
Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-3400
Voice: 423 974-2321
TTY: 423 974-2321
Fax: 423 974-8674

American Sign Language Studies Program
Chattanooga State Technical Community College
4501 Amnicola Highway
Chattanooga, Tennessee 37406-1097
Voice: 423 697-4415
TTY: 423 697-4415
Fax: 423 697-4430

Sign Language/Interpreting
Maryville College
502 East Lamar Alexander Parkway
Maryville, Tennessee 37804
Voice: 423 981-8148
TTY: 423 981-8149
Toll Free: 800 597-2687
Fax: 423 981-8010

Interpreter Training Department
San Antonio College
1300 San Pedro Avenue
San Antonio, Texas 78212-4299
Voice: 210 733-2071
TTY: 210 733-2072
Fax: 210 733-2074

Interpreter Training
Eastfield College
3737 Motley Drive
Mesquite, Texas 75150
Voice: 972 860-7161
TTY: 972 860-7161
Fax: 972 860-8342

Interpreting for the Deaf
Northwest Campus
Tarrant County Junior College
4801 Marine Creek Parkway
Fort Worth, Texas 76179
Voice: 817 515-7762
Fax: 817 515-7007

Interpreter Training Program
McLennan Community College
1400 College Drive
Waco, Texas 76708
Voice: 254 299-8733
Fax: 254 299-8747 M

Sign Language/Interpreter Preparatory Program
El Paso Community College
919 Hunter
Post Office Box 20500
El Paso, Texas 79998
Voice: 915 594-2432
TTY: 915 594-2432
Fax: 915 599-4925

Interpreter Training Program
Salt Lake Community College
4600 South Redwood Road
Post Office Box 30808
Salt Lake City, Utah 84130-0808
Voice: 801 957-4929
TTY: 801 957-4929
Fax: 801 957-4853

Interpreter Training Program
Drawer 1127
New River Community College
Dublin, Virginia 24084
Voice: 703 674-3600 (x290)
TTY: 703 674-3619
Fax: 703 674-3642

Interpreter Training Program/Deafness
Spokane Falls Community College
West 3410 Fort George Wright Drive, MS 3190
Spokane, Washington 99204-5288
Voice: 509 533-3618/3730
TTY: 509 533-3618/3730

Interpreter Training Program
Languages & Cultures Division
Seattle Central Community College
1701 Broadway, 2 BE 1142
Seattle, Washington 98122
Voice: 206 344-4347
TTY: 206 344-4347

Department of Education & the Arts
West Virginia Division of Rehabilitation Services
State Capitol Building
Post Office Box 50890
Charleston, West Virginia 25305-0890
Voice: 304 766-4965
TTY: 304 766-4965
Toll Free: 800 642-8207
Fax: 304 766-4690

Interpreter Training Program
Department of Exceptional Education
Post Office Box 413
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201
Voice: 414 229-6567
TTY: 414 229-6567
Fax: 414 229-5500

Education Interpreter Technician Program
Northcentral Technical College
1000 West Campus Drive
Wausau, Wisconsin 54401
Voice: 715 675 3331 (x 4084)
TTY: 715 675-6341
Fax: 715 675-9776

Educational Interpreting Program
NWCCD/Sheridan College
3059 Coffeen Avenue
Post Office Box 1500
Sheridan, Wyoming 82801-1500
Voice: 307 674-6446, ext 6231
TTY: 307 674-6446, ext 6231
Toll Free: 800 913-9139, ext 6231
Fax: 307 674-4293

APPENDIX B. SELECTED RESOURCES FOR RECRUITING VARIOUS TYPES OF INTERPRETERS

Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf
3417 Volta Place, NW
Washington, D.C. 20007

American Annals of the Deaf
KDES
Gallaudet University
800 Florida Avenue, NE
Washington, D.C. 20002

Conference of Interpreter Trainers
CIT News
C/O University of Arkansas, Little Rock
Department of Rehabilitation
2801 South University Avenue
Little Rock, AR 72204-1099

Cued Speech News
Gallaudet University
Department.of Audiology/
Speech-Language Pathology
800 Florida Avenue, NE
Washington, D.C. 20002

National Association of the Deaf
814 Thayer Avenue
Silver Spring, MD 20910

Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc.
8630 Fenton Street, Suite 324
Silver Spring, MD 20910-3803

The Cued Speech Center
Post Office Box 31345
Raleigh, NC 27622